Notes for chapter 4 of Nationalism and Language Reform in China, by John DeFrancis.

  1. The chief source for the material in the following pages on the Conference on Unification of Pronunciation is the graphic account by Li Chin-hsi in his article, "Records of the 1913 Conference on Unification of Pronunciation," Gwoyeu joukan, No. 133 (April 14, 1934) and No. 134 (April 20, 1934) [in Chinese]. This material is all produced in his History of the National Language Movement, pp. 50-63. A translation of the regulations governing the calling of the conference is given in Isidore Saura, O.F.M., "L'écriture alphabetique de la 1angue chinoise," Le bulletin catholique de pekin, xx (1933), 420, note 1.
  2. Ni Hai-shu, Chronology of the Movement for Latinization of Chinese Writing, p. 30.
  3. On these other scripts see especially Chia Yin-keng, "The Movement for Simplified Symbols," op.cit., Nos. 44-48 and 53-55.
  4. For a concise phonetic analysis of these signs see George A. Kennedy, Key to Chinese Reading for Beginners (New Haven, 1939), pp. 3-6. A full table of the syllables made by combining the symbols and adding the tones, as well as a comparison with the Wade-Giles and Lessing-Othmer systems of transcription, is given in W. Trittel, "Das 4-Ecken-Aufschlagesystem und die amtliche Lateinumschrift der Reichssprache," Mitteilungen der Ausland-Hochschule an der Universität Berlin (frühen Seminar für Orientalische Sprachen), XI (1937), 107-48. Another description is provided by Paul C. C. Lu, "The Chinese Phonetic System and How to Teach It," The Chinese Students' Monthly, XVI, No.2 June, 1921), 555-57.
  5. Saura, "L'écriture alphabétique de la langue chinoise," op.cit., XIX (1932), 372.
  6. Li Chin-hsi, History of the National Language Movement, p. 66 ff.; Ni Hai-shu, Chronology of the Movement for Latinization of Chinese Writing, p. 31 ff.
  7. Li Chin-hsi, loc.cit., Ni Hai-shu, loc.cit.
  8. Herman C. E. Liu, "Mass Education and Phonetic Character," The China Christian Year Book, 1931 (Shanghai, 1931), p. 216.
  9. Ibid., p. 218.
  10. E. J. and S. G. Peill, "The Scriptures in Phonetic for North China," The Chinese Recorder, XLVII (1916), 329; S. G. Peill, "No Competition with the Government," The Chinese Recorder, XLIX (1918), 206-7; T. F. Carter, "Phonetic Writing of Chinese," The Chinese Recorder, L (1919), 40.
  11. Li Chin-hsi, History of the National Language Movement, p. 64.
  12. Chia Yin-keng, "The Initial Stage of the National Language Romanization Movement," Gwoyeu joukan, No.38 (June 11, 1932) [in Chinese]; Lo Ch'ang-p'ei, History of the Development of the National Phonetic Alphabet, p. 16 ff.
  13. "Conference on Simplified Chinese Writing," The Chinese Recorder, XLIX (1918), 685; Carter, op.cit., pp. 39-40.
  14. "Notes on Teaching the Phonetic Script," The Chinese Recorder, L (1919), 785.
  15. "Phonetic Literature," The Chinese Recorder, LII (1921), 361; "Notes on Teaching the Phonetic Script," op.cit., p. 707; E. G. Tewksbury, "Phonetic Promotion Committee," The China Mission Year Book 1925 (Shanghai, 1925), pp. 390-92.
  16. W. B. Cole, "Romanized Script in Fukien," The Chinese Recorder, LI (1920), 857.
  17. Cf. A. G. Bryson, "Present Use of Phonetic System in Teaching Illiterates to Read the Bible," China Mission Year Book 1924 (Shanghai, 1924), pp. 325-39.
  18. S. J. Garland, "Promotion of Phonetic Writing in China," The China Mission Year Book 1919 (Shanghai, 1920), p. 179.
  19. R. R. Gailey, "Government System of Simplified Chinese," The China Mission Year Book 1917 (Shanghai, 1917), p. 534.
  20. Shen I, "A Respectful Warning to Middle School Teachers of National Literature with Respect to the Phonetic Signs," Gwoyeu joukan, No.3 (September 19, 1931) [in Chinese].
  21. Y. C. James Yen, "Chinese Mass Education Movement Progresses Strongly," in Institute of Pacific Relations News Bulletin (October 16, 1926), p. 10; Wang Tsi Chang, The Youth Movement in China (New York, 1927), pp. 238-41; see also Yen's articles on the Mass Education Movement in The China Mission Year Book for 1923 and 1924.
  22. Y. C. James Yen, "Chinese Mass Education Movement Progresses Strongly," op.cit., p. 10.
  23. Herman C. E. Liu, "Mass Education and Phonetic Character," op.cit., p. 216.
  24. Yuan Chien-fu, "The Teaching of Language and Literature in the Ting-hsien Experiment," Gwoyeu joukan, No.136 (May 5, 1934) [in Chinese].
  25. [Hsiao] Ti-ch'en, "Phonetic Signs and Mass Education," Gwoyeu joukan, No.2(September 12, 1931) [in Chinese].
  26. Li Chin-hsi, " A Great Highway for the Advance of the Revolutionary Army of the Chinese Script," Kuo-yü yüeh-k'an, Han-tzu kai-ko hao (August, 1922), pp. 51-61 [in Chinese]; Johannes Schubert, "Etwas uber die Versuche zur Vereinfachung der chinesischen Schrift," in Rudolf Stowesand, Nunquam retrorsum, Beiträge zur Schrift- und Buchkunde als Ehregabe fur Herr Professor Dr. Albert Schramm anläszlich seines 50. Geburtstages am 5. August 1930 (N.p., 1930), pp. 102-3; "New Chinese Types," Quarterly Bulletin of Chinese Bibliography, n, No.1(March, 1935), 3.
  27. Mergenthaler Linotype Company, China's Phonetic Script and the Linotype (Brooklyn, 1922) ; letter from the company to the author dated January 31, 1947. The symbols of the Phonetic Alphabet were increased to forty in 1920 by the adoption of one new sign.
  28. Li Chin-hsi, History of the National Language Movement, pp. 91-94.
  29. Ibid., p. 233 and Introduction, p. 48; Ni Hai-shu, Chronology of the Movement for Latinization of Chinese Writing, p. 52. In a previous article, following W. Simon and C. H. Lu, Chinese Sentence Series (London, 1942), I, 15, note 1, I incorrectly gave the date of the change in name as 1928. (De Francis, "The Alphabetization of Chinese," op.cit., p. 229, note 27.)
  30. Pai Ti-chou, "Introducing a Great Pioneer of the National Language Movement," op.cit.
  31. Li Chin-hsi, History of the National Language Movement, Introduction, pp. 42-43.
  32. "The Restoration of 'Wen Li,' " The Chinese Recorder, LV (1924), 488.
  33. T'ung Chen-hua, The Evolution of Chinese Writing (Shanghai, 1937), pp. 169-70 [in Chinese].
  34. Ch'ien Hsüan-t'ung, "The Problem of the Present and Future Script," in Chao Chia-pi, ed., Chung-kuo hsin-wen-hsüeh ta-hsi, I (1935), 141-42 [in Chinese].
  35. Ibid., p. 145.
  36. Ibid., p. 146.
  37. Hu Shih, Letter in reply to Chu Ching-nung, op.cit., pp. 165-68; Mu Suh [Hu Shih], "The Chinese Literary Revolution," Millard's Review of the Far East, vm, No.8 (April 19, 1919), 277. Cf. also Chia Yin-keng, "The Growing Period of the National Language Romanization," Gwoyeu joukan, No.66 (December 24, 1932) [in Chinese]; Lo Ch'ang-p'ei, History of the Development of the National Phonetic Alphabet, p. 21.
  38. E. E. Liu, "The Romanization of Chinese," The China Critic, xx, No.4 (July 28, 1938), 57.
  39. Fu Szu-nien, "Preliminary Discussion on Changing Over to a Phonetic Script for Chinese," Hsin ch'ao, I, No.3 (March, 1919), 393. 408 fin Chinese].
  40. Loc.cit.
  41. For various opinions expressed on these subjects see Li Chin-hsi, "The Principle of 'Non'-Unification of the National Language," Gwoyeu joukan, No.127 (March 3, 1934) [in Chinese].
  42. The National Language Monthly (Kuo-yu yueh-k'an) was published in fifteen issues between 1922 and 1925, when it ceased publication because it had become too highly specialized. This journal was succeeded by the National Language Weekly (Kuo-yu chou-k'an) which was published in nineteen issues from June 14 to December 27, 1925, when it ceased publication because it too had become overly technical. It was followed by the National Language Ten-Day Journal (Kuo-yü hsün-k'an), which was published in thirteen issues between August 1 and December 11, 1929. A fourth and last journal in this series had the same title as the second. (Li Chin-hsi, "Statement on Publication of the second National Language Weekly)," Gwoyeu joukan, No.1 [September 5, 1931] [in Chinese].) This second National Language Weekly ran to 182 issues between September 5, 1931 and March 23, 1935. It is a particularly rich source of information on the history of the language reform movement in China.
    The "Reformation of the Chinese Characters" number (Han-tzu kai-ko hao) of the National Language Monthly was dated August, 1922 but did not actually appear until 1923. The special number on alphabetic writing was published in 1924. (Tu Tzu-ching, "The Problem of the New Chinese Script in the Past Five Years," Gwoyeu joukan, No.5 (October 3, 1931) in Chinese).
  43. Hu Shih, "Introductory Remarks," op.cit., pp. 1-2; Ch'ien Hsüan- t'ung, "A Revolution in the Chinese Script," Kuo-yu yüeh-k'an, Han-tzu kai-ko hao (August, 1922), pp. 5-25 [in Chinese]; Li Chin-hsi, "A Great Highway for the Advance of the Revolutionary Army of the Chinese Script," op.cit., pp. 27-65; Ch'ien Hsüan-t'ung, "Two Systems for a National Language Alphabet," Kuo-yu yueh-k'an, Han-tzu kai-ko hao (August, 1922), pp. 119-20 [in Chinese]; Chao Yüan-jen, "Studies on National Language Romanization," Kuo-yu yueh-k'an, Han-tzu kai-ko hao (August, 1922), pp. 87-117 [in Chinese].
  44. Yuen R. Chao [Chao Yüan-jen], "The Problem of the Chinese Language," The Chinese Students' Monthly, XI, (1916), 587 and passim. (Dr. Chao's name also appears in various forms: Chao Yüan-jen, Jaw Yuanrenn, Yuen Ren Chao, Yuen R. Chao, and Y. R. Chao). For the kind of objections which Chao refuted in his article see C. T. Chu, "Observations on Romanization of the Chinese Language," The Chinese Students' Monthly, No.7 (May, 1916), 472-76.
  45. Yuen Ren Chao, " A System of Romanization of the National Language," The Chinese Students' Monthly, XVII, No. 3 (January, 1922), 198 and passim.
  46. Chao Yüan-jen, "Studies on National Language Romanization," op.cit., especially pp. 102-11. This article is summarized by Johannes Schubert in "Rapport," in International Institute for Intellectual Cooperation, L'adoption universelle des caracteres latins (Paris, 1934), pp. 60-66.
  47. Lo Ch'ang-p'ei, History of the Development of the National Phonetic Alphabet, p. 35 and passim; Ni Hai-shu, Chronology of the Movement for Latinization of the Chinese Writing, pp. 44-49; Tu Tzu-ching, "The Problem of the New Chinese Script in the Past Five Years," op.cit.; Chia Yin-keng, "The Growing Period of the National Language Romanization," op.cit., Nos. 66 and 68.
  48. lbid. See also Li Chin-hsi, History of the National Language Movement, especially pp. 164-66 and Introduction, p. 59.
  49. Details of the technical features of G.R. are presented in Denzel Carr, "The Gwoyeu 'Transcription,' " Rocznik Orientalistyczny, x (1934), 77-86; Simon and Lu, op.cit., Vol. I, especially pp. 24-62; Trittel, "Das 4-Ecken-Aufschlagesystem und die amtliche Lateinumschrift der Reichssprache," op.cit., pp. 104-48.
  50. Can, op.cit., p. 82.
  51. His name also appears as Chiu Bien-ming, Jou Bienming, and Benjamin Chou. His relevant writings include "Bridging the Gulf Between Speech and Writing," The China Journal, vm (1928), 61-67 and 122-29, and IX (October, 1928),175-76; "Progress in Romanization: Q.R. 1937-38," The Chinese Recorder, LXX (June, 1939),319-32; Internationalizing the Chinese Script: Progress in Quokyu Romanization 1937-45 (Amoy, 1945).
  52. [Chang Shih-i], "Mr. Chang Shih-i on Standard Language," Gwoyeu joukan, No.86 (May 20, 1933) [in Chinese]. See also Y. R. Chao, "The Idea of a System of Basic Chinese," Quarterly Bulletin of Chinese Bibliography, I, No.4 (December, 1934), 173. For a detailed discussion of the differences between the old and the new standard pronunciations see Lo Ch'ang-p'ei, "Some Questions Regarding the National Pronunciation," Gwoyeu joukan, No.172 (January 12, 1925) [in Chinese].
  53. P'eng Hsüeh-p'ei, " Abolish Chinese Characters! Adopt a Phonetic Script!" in Li Chung-hao, ed., Wen-tzu li-shih-kuan yü ko-ming-lun (1931), pp. 427-33 [in Chinese]. (Reprinted from Hsien-tai p'ing-lun, ti-san chou-nien chi-nien tseng-k'an). See also Tu Tzu-ching, "The Problem of the Chinese Script in the Past Five Years," op.cit.
  54. Li Wei-yüeh, "Comments Provoked by Reading' Abolish Chinese Characters, Adopt a Phonetic Script,' " Hsüeh i, IX, No. 6 (April 15, 1929), 1-8 [in Chinese].
  55. Li Chin-hsi, History of the National Language Movement, pp. 188-91.
  56. Tu Tzu-ching, "Monthly Records of the Problem of the New Chinese Writing," Gwoyeu joukan, No.76 (March 11, 1933) and No. 78 (March 25, 1933) [in Chinese]; Li Chin-hsi, History of the National Language Movement, pp. 180-82; Simon and Lu, op.cit., Vol. I, pp. 227-30.
  57. Wang Yuchuan [Wang Yü-ch'uan], "National Romanized vs. Latinxua," The China Critic, IV, No.3 (July 16, 1936), 59.
  58. Hsin T'ien [Lo Ch'ang-p'ei], "A Noteworthy Bit of News," Gwoyeu joukan, No.116 (December 16, 1933) [in Chinese].
  59. Bemhard Karlgren, The Romanization of Chinese (London, 1928), p.20.
  60. Lu Hsün, "Outside Literary Chats," Lu Hsün Ch'üan-chi, VI, 102-3 [in Chinese].
  61. Yü Se, "On Abolishing the Four Tones," Hsüeh-i, x, No.5 (June 15, 1930); 1-5 [in Chinese]. I have transposed Yü Se's transcription into Wade in order not to introduce a needless complication into the discussion. His original version is mama bu ge wo mai tang chu.
  62. See, among others, Li Chin-hsi, "Questions and Answers on Reform of the Chinese Script," Wen-hua yü chiao-yü, No.21 (June 10, 1934), 2 [in Chinese]; idem, History of the National Language Movement, p. 297.
  63. Tu Tzu-ching, "The Problem of the New Chinese Script in the Past Five Years," op.cit.
  64. Wu Chih-hui, "Long Live the Popular Language," Wen-hsüeh, ill, No.3 (September, 1934),647-48 [in Chinese].
  65. Jou Bienming [Chou Pien-ming], Internationalizing the Chinese Script, p. 15 and passim. See also Chiu Bien-ming [Chou Pien-ming], "Progress in Romanization," op.cit., 319-32.
  66. Y. R. Chao [Chao Yüan-jen], "The Idea of a System of Basic Chinese," op.cit., pp. 171-83.
  67. [Wang] Liao-i, "The Theory and Practice of Reform of the Chinese Script," Tu-li p'ing-lun, No.205 (June 14, 1936), 7-8 [in Chinese].
  68. Denzel Can, " A Characterization of the Chinese National Language," Biuletyn Polskiego Towarzystwa lesykoznwczego, ill (1932), 4.
  69. E.g. Tu Tzu-ching, "The Problem of a New Chinese Script in the Past Five Years," op.cit.; [Wang] Liao-i, "The Theory and Practice of Reform of Chinese Characters," op.cit., p. 8; Li Chin-hsi, History of the National Language Movement, Introduction, p. 60.
  70. Tu Tzu-ching, "The Problem of a New Chinese Script," op.cit. Another of the rather infrequent instances of early support for the idea expressed by Chiang of primary emphasis on literacy in local dialects is Feng Mao-sung's article, " A Phonetic Alphabet for the Hainan Language," Kuo-li Chung-shan ta-hsüeh yü-yen li-shih hsüeh yen-chiu-so chou-k'an, Vill, Combined Nos. 85-87, Fang-yen chuan-hao (June 26, 1929), 57-63 [in Chinese].
  71. Jou Bienming [Chou Pien-ming], Internationalizing the Chinese Script, especially pp. 19-24. See also "Chinese Language Reforms," Quarterly Bulletin of Chinese Bibliography, n, No.3 (September, 1935), 75; Lin Feng, "ANew Phonetic Method of Learning Chinese," The China Critic, VI, No.33 (August 17,1933),812-13.
  72. Ch'en Kuo-fu, The Problem of Reforming Chinese Education (Nanking, 1941?), pp. 7 and 62 [in Chinese].
  73. C. Y. W. Meng, "Chinas War on Illiteracy Advanced by the Government's 3-Year Education Plan," China Weekly Review, xcvm, No.6